Lappet-faced vulture  (Torgos tracheliotos)

As the largest vulture in Africa (2), the lappet-faced vulture dominates other vultures when feeding and is even powerful enough to fend off a jackal (5)! This impressive species is armed with a large and powerful beak (6), capable of tearing off the hides, tendons and other coarse tissue of its scavenged prey that are too tough for smaller scavengers (7). This enormous, broad-winged bird is easily recognised by its conspicuous size, bare, pink-skinned head and distinctive fleshy folds of skin, known as lappets, on the sides of its neck, for which it earns its common name (7) (8). There are two subspecies of the lappet-faced vulture. The African subspecies Torgos tracheliotus tracheliotus has mostly dark brown to black feathers (8), which contrast starkly with the white thighs and white bar running across the leading edge of the underwing, clearly visible when in flight (2). The north-east African subspecies, Torgos tracheliotus negevensis, is altogether browner, including partially-brown thighs, with only some individuals showing white on the underwing, and those individuals formerly found in Israel also having pure white feathers on their backs (9).

Distributed across the Middle East and Africa, where the bird is found from the southern Sahara to the Sahel (9), down through east Africa to central and northern South Africa. In Africa, this vulture breeds in Egypt, possibly Libya, Senegal, Niger, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa (2). Breeding populations have been extinct in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia since the 1930s (2), and it may also no longer breed in Swaziland (10). In the Middle East, the bird breeds in Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen (2). The species no longer breeds in Israel, but it is known to sometimes travel up to 150 kilometres away from the breeding area to forage, and thus individuals that are thought to breed in Saudi Arabia can be found in Israel (2) (9).

Over much of its range, the lappet-faced vulture inhabits dry savannah, semi-arid or desert areas with only scattered trees, thorn bushes and short grass, as well as open mountain slopes up to 4,500 metres above sea level (2) (9). Although open habitat is ideal for foraging, trees are also of critical importance, because they are used for roosting and nesting, with thorny species of Acacia, Balanites and Terminalia preferred (9).

The lappet-faced vulture is primarily a scavenger, preferring to feed on the carcasses of smaller animals such as gazelle and hares (2) (7). Unusually for vultures, however, this species also occasionally hunts and kills live prey, including small mammals and birds such as flamingos, in addition to feeding opportunistically on eggs, and possibly termites and locusts (6) (11). Although normally found alone or in pairs, these birds will sometimes congregate around large food sources or water holes, with up to 50 individuals seen in exceptional cases, although groups do not usually exceed ten (9). Being much more powerful and aggressive than other vulture species, and of dominating size, the lappet-faced vulture will often scare off or steal from smaller vultures (7) (9).

When mating, pairs often build only one nest, although it is also normal to have one to three nests that are used alternately, and these nests are used year after year. The breeding season varies across this bird's extensive range. Generally, those in East Africa breed throughout the year (9), while those in southern Africa probably mate in May, and breed from May until mid-summer when the chicks fledge (10), and those in the extreme north of the range mate from November to July (sometimes to September). One egg per clutch is usual, which is then incubated for 54 to 56 days by both parents (9). Although the chick fledges at 125 to 135 days, they continue to remain dependent on their parents for quite some time (5) (9). Despite being independent from their parents, young usually take six years before they will begin to breed themselves (9).

The remaining small and declining population of lappet-faced vultures is suffering from a variety of threats across its range, but owes its demise particularly to poisoning and persecution. Widespread accidental poisoning has occurred through these birds feeding on bait treated with strychnine and other poisons that are intended for mammalian predators, left out by farmers in order to protect their livestock. However, this vulture has also often been mistakenly accused of preying on livestock itself, and consequently persecuted by farmers. One particularly devastating deliberate poisoning incident killed 86 lappet-faced vultures in Namibia (2). A rising scarcity of large carcasses on which to feed may also be a problem (9). Additionally, this species is particularly sensitive to nest disturbance, which may sadly be growing with increasing road construction and recreational use of off-road vehicles (2). Like other bird species, this vulture has been known to fall victim to electrocution by high-voltage pylons and power lines (5). As a result of such threats, many local populations are gradually becoming extinct.

The lappet-faced vulture breeds in a number of protected areas within its extensive range, and ongoing ecological research is being conducted, particularly on the T. t. negevensis subspecies in Saudi Arabia and on T. t. tracheliotos in southern Africa. There is an urgent need to raise awareness amongst farmers of the plight of this species and the decimating effects both persecution and accidental poisoning are having (2). Thus, farmer-awareness programmes are one of the key initiatives proposed in the action plan for this species, which was created in 2005, along with ongoing research and an awareness campaign to reduce nest disturbance (9). International cooperation and concerted conservation effort will be required if further localised extinctions are to be prevented, a fate sadly already realised in a number of North African countries and Israel.

For further information on the lappet-faced vulture and its conservation see:

Shimelis, A., Sande, E., Evans, S. and Mundy, P. (2005) International Species Action Plan for the Lappet-faced Vulture, Torgos tracheliotus. BirdLife International, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Nairobi, Kenya, UK.

For information on the conservation of vultures and other raptors see:

The Hawk Conservancy Trust:
www.hawk-conservancy.org

Authenticated (11/03/08) by Mark D. Anderson, Specialist Nature Conservation Scientist (Ornithologist), Department of Tourism, Environment and Conservation, Northern Cape, South Africa.