Forests are complex ecosystems which support a wide range of species. It has been estimated that 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered in forest and that most of Europe’s original species were either forest dependent or tolerant.
The landscape of Europe has changed dramatically, but almost half of Europe’s land surface is still covered in forest. However, after centuries of human influence, the vast majority of this forest is now classified as semi-natural. In Europe, only 26 percent of forests are undisturbed and these are mainly located in inaccessible areas in northern and eastern Europe and the Russian Federation.
The forest area in Europe is expanding, and over the last 20 years it has grown by 17 million hectares. As well as the size of forested areas growing, there has also been an increase in the amount of protected forest areas in Europe. However, despite these increases there are still many European forest species under threat. The main threats to forest ecosystems and biodiversity include habitat fragmentation, climate change, and unsustainable forest management.
Most of the natural vegetation of lowland and submontane Europe is made up of a mixture of temperate deciduous and temperate evergreen forests. It is mainly broadleaved deciduous forest with oaks, beech, ash, elm birch and elder trees dominating. The exact mix of trees which occur in these forests depends on soil type and microclimate. Pine trees grow alongside the deciduous trees in some areas and other areas may only contain pine trees. Beech forests are found in many parts of Europe and those in montane areas frequently contain spruce and fir trees.
The Eurasian boreal forest, or taiga, extends from Scandinavia to the east coast of Russia. The boreal forests in Europe are dominated by the Norway spruce and the Scots pine, although some areas also contain deciduous trees, such as larch, birch and alder
Having once covered large areas of the Mediterranean, the remaining evergreen forests are now mostly confined to Spain and Portugal and have been significantly altered by human activity. The dominant trees in the managed evergreen forests of Spain and Portugal are cork and holm oak.
Forests are essential for conserving biodiversity and their complicated structure provides an ideal habitat for a wide range of species. However, certain forests have higher levels of biodiversity than others, with old growth and semi-natural forests being the most valuable forest types for biodiversity. Old growth or virgin forests are complex systems untouched by humans that are generally made up of young, old and even dead trees and contain many specialised species. The old growth forests of Romania are home to up to 13,000 species. In forest ecosystems, dead wood is just as important as living trees, with many species depending on it for shelter or as a food source. In the Białowieża Primeval Forest, half of the 12,000 species found there are dependent on decaying logs. Many factors affect the amount of dead wood in natural and semi-natural forests, including tree species, soil type, climate and the way in which the forest is managed.
As well as providing a habitat for a wide range of species, forests are also important socially, economically and environmentally. Forests provide protection against soil erosion, regulate climate and purify freshwater. In Europe, forests play an important role in the fight against climate change as they are the main carbon sink. Each year between 2005 and 2010, around 870 million tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide was removed due to the process of photosynthesis and tree biomass growth within Europe. However, European forests are beginning to show signs of reaching a saturation point as carbon sinks, where the trees will be unable to absorb any more atmospheric carbon.
As around four million people in Europe are currently employed in forest-related jobs, these ecosystems have an extremely important economic function. Forests also provide people with a connection with nature, improve air quality and have a positive impact on quality of life.
Despite the size of forests increasing in Europe, forest species and habitats are still under threat. In 2009, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimated that 27 percent of mammals, 10 percent of reptiles and 8 percent of amphibians related to forests in the European Union were threatened with extinction. The assessment of 73 forest habitats listed in the European Commission Habitats Directive showed that 63 percent had an ‘unfavourable’ conservation status, while just 21 percent were classed as ‘favourable’.
Once roaming throughout western, central and south-eastern Europe, the European bison had been lost entirely from the wild by 1927 as a result of habitat loss and hunting. The European bison has since been successfully reintroduced to some of its former range including the Białowieża Forest.
Europe’s largest beetle, the stag beetle, is under threat due to the loss of its forest habitat. While in the larval stage, the stag beetle is dependent on decaying wood for shelter and as a food source. The removal of dead or decaying wood has led to a decline in the population size of this species.
Endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, the Endangered Carbonell’s wall lizard lives in forest and forest clearings. Threats to this species include degradation and loss of habitat due to forest fires, development for tourism and the replacement of natural forest with wood plantations. This species is also likely to be at risk from climate change and predation from yellow-legged gulls, whose population is increasing.
Location: On the border between Belarus and Poland.
Forest type: It is the last remaining primary deciduous and mixed forest of the European lowlands. About one-tenth of the forest is protected in parks.
Species: The forest is made up of evergreen and broadleaved trees including pine, beech, oak, alder and spruce. The forest is home to a wide array of animals including the grey wolf, the Eurasian eagle-owl and the largest herd of European bison, which were reintroduced to the park.
Did you know? The Białowieża Forest is home to over a quarter of Poland’s flora.
Location: Ural Mountains, Russia
Forest type: Boreal forest
Species: The dominant tree species include Siberian spruce, Siberian fir and Siberian larch. There have been 43 mammal, 204 bird and 16 fish species recorded here, including a mixture of both European and Asian species. Animals found here include the brown bear, the wolverine, the capercaillie and the black woodpecker.
Did you know? The Virgin Komi Forests is the only place in Europe where the Siberian pine grows.Location: In the Parque Natural de Madeira, Madeira, Portugal
Forest type: The largest surviving area of primary laurel forest (90% primary forest).
Species: The Laurisilva of Madeira is home to many unique plants and animals. Endemic plants include the honey spurge, the Pride of Madeira and various trees belonging to the Lauraceae family. Though there are only a few vertebrate species, there is a high level of endemism and more than 500 endemic invertebrate species.
Did you know? Fossil evidence shows that around 15 to 40 million years ago, laurel forests were widespread across much of southern Europe, but they are now confined to the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands.
Threats to the biodiversity of European forests include habitat fragmentation, climate change, airborne pollution and unsustainable management.
Habitat fragmentation reduces the coverage and connectivity of European forests, which impacts animal migrations, seed dispersal and the overall biodiversity of the forests. Fragmentation can result in habitats becoming too small for forest species to feed, breed or rest. The main causes of habitat fragmentation in Europe include the development of transport networks, logging and forest fires. Expanding the size of forest areas does not always improve forest connectivity and currently Europe’s forests are more fragmented than ever.
Another challenge facing the forests of Europe is climate change. Climate change is likely to have major impacts on European forests by increasing some forests’ exposure to storms and forest fires, as well as increasing flooding and drought events. Changing climates will also affect the biology, growth and distribution of species in Europe’s forests, with longer periods of drought and warmer winters likely to facilitate the establishment of invasive species. The vulnerability of forests to climate change is likely to differ depending on the location, with alpine forests expected to be severely affected.
Another threat to European forests’ biodiversity is illegal logging, mainly occurring in south-eastern Europe, which leads to a loss of habitat and exposes the land to erosion and degradation.
One of the best ways to protect the biodiversity of Europe’s forests is through the creation of protected areas. The area of protected forests in Europe has increased by about half a million hectares every year over the last decade. Currently, excluding the Russian Federation, about 10 percent of forests in Europe are protected with the aim of conserving biodiversity and 9 percent to protect landscapes and natural elements. In total, around 39 million hectares of forest in Europe are protected, and these ecosystems are expanding. In the Russian Federation, there are around 17 million hectares of protected forests. However the strictness of and measures for this protection varies among countries.
A forest’s ecosystem is impacted by the way in which it is managed, with unsustainable forest management being one of the biggest threats to biodiversity. Over recent years, forest management has changed with greater emphasis now being put on protecting biodiversity. For example, more dead wood is now being left in forests, there has been an increase in the use of natural regeneration and a decrease in single species forests. Long-term monitoring has shown that several European countries that have adopted these new forest management practices have seen a decline in the number of threatened species.
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European forests supported by...
European forests have been profiled with support from The Mitsubishi Corporation Fund for Europe and Africa to help raise awareness about the importance of European forests and their distinctive biodiversity, and the need for their protection and conservation.
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